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Napoleon Bonaparte: Powers
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Napoleon Bonaparte stands in the company of men like Alexander as one of the greatest military commanders to ever live. As a ruler he brought France to unprecedented heights of glory only to see it unravel as a result of his arrogance. Few men have left a greater mark in history. BIOGRAPHY® traces the life and legend of the Corsican commander through extensive research, countless historical documents and artifacts and the testimony of some of the world's most respected scholars. Examine his greatest military victories in detail then discover the errors that cost him even greater triumphs. Trace his rise to power and tragic decline, and explore the monumental legacy that continues to influence the world to this day.
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The great French military leader Napoleon Bonaparte had initially capitalized on the reforms of the French Revolution to improve the lives of French citizens. But over time, Napoleon's lust for power overcame his good economic, political and military accomplishments, and his transformation into a selfish dictator led to his fall.
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Landing at Fréjus, France, in October 1799, Napoleon went directly to Paris, where he helped overthrow the Directory, a five-man executive body that had replaced the king. Napoleon was named first consul, or head of the government, and he received almost unlimited powers. After Austria and England ignored his calls for peace, he led an army into Italy and defeated the Austrians in the Battle of Marengo (1800). This brought Italy back under French control. The Treaty of Amiens in March 1802 ended the war with England for the time being. Napoleon ... restored harmony between the Roman Catholic Church and the French government.
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Once Louis Philippe was ousted in 1848, Louis Napoleon renewed his quest by offering himself as a candidate for the presidency of the new French republic. To the astonishment of political veterans, he won in a landslide. His triumph was diminished... by a Royalist victory in the legislative elections in 1849 and by the constitution’s limiting him to one 4-year term. He resolved that dilemma by a coup d’état on Dec. 2, 1851, assuming dictatorial powers and extending his term of office to ten years. Despite continued pockets of opposition, clear evidence of widespread popular support encouraged him a year later to convert the Second Republic into the Second Empire; because the son of Napoleon I had been known to his followers as Napoleon II, Louis Napoleon took the title Napoleon III. Historians divide his reign into two periods.
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Bonaparte's administrative reforms established an efficient modern state that was capable of effectively mobilizing its resources and afforded him vast patronage powers. He established the Bank of France. He ... made peace with the Roman Catholic Church by the Concordat of 1801, which reestablished the church in France, but bound it to the success of his regime. He thereby neutralized the antirevolutionary priests who had encouraged peasant unrest (see Chouans) since 1793. Church property was not restored, but church unity and status were reestablished in return for stricter submission to civil authorities. The legal system was reformed with the Code Napoléon, which was begun before Bonaparte's consulate but was marked by his priorities.
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Napoleon refused to treat with Cardinal Litta, and demanded that Pius VII should be represented by a Frenchman, Cardinal de Bayanne. Then he pretended that Bayanne's powers from the pope were not sufficient. And while the pope was negotiating with him in good faith, Napoleon, without warning, caused the four pontifical Provinces of Macerata, Spoleto, Urbino, and Foligno to be occupied by General Lemarrois (October, 1807). Pius VII then revoked Cardinal Bayanne's powers. It as evident that, not only did Napoleon require of him an offensive alliance against England, but that the Emperor's pretensions, and those of his new minister of foreign affairs, Champagny, Talleyrand's successor, were now beginning to encroach upon the domain of religion. Napoleon claimed that one third of the cardinals should belong to the French Empire; and Champagny let it be understood that the emperor would soon demand that the Holy See should respect the "Gallican Liberties", and should abstain from "any act containing positive clauses or reservations calculated to alarm consciences and spread divisions in His Majesty's dominions". Henceforth it was the spiritual authority that Napoleon aspired to control.
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