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Napoleon Bonaparte: British India
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Napoleon Bonaparte died on May 5, 1821 at 17:49, in Sainte-Hélène island. Next day, Antommarchi -the personal Napoleon's doctor- performed the necropsy in presence of several British military surgeons. It was diagnosed, as cause of his death, gastric cancer. One of the doctors noticed his liver was swollen, but such a circumstance was ordered to be kept under secret: a possible hepatitis, being endemic in that island, might be confered to negligence of those who had confined Bonaparte to Sainte-Hélène.
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[I]n 1796, Bonaparte was made commander of the French army in Italy. He defeated four Austrian generals in succession, each with superior numbers, and forced Austria and its allies to make peace. The Treaty of Campo Formio provided that France keep most of its conquests. In northern Italy he founded the Cisalpine (Italian) Republic (later known as the kingdom of Italy) and strengthened his position in France by sending millions of francs worth of treasure to the government. In 1798, to strike at British trade with the East, he led an expedition to Turkish-ruled Egypt, which he conquered. His fleet... was destroyed by the British admiral Horatio Nelson, leaving him stranded.
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Napoleon then initiated a series of campaigns against the Austrians and Sardinians in Italy, winning in rapid succession Savoy, Nice, Lombardy, and Mantua for France. In 1797 he crossed the Alps into Vienna and negotiated the Treaty of Campo Formio, ending the first phase of the Revolution. In 1798 he commanded 35,000 troops in Egypt to threaten English interests in India, seizing Malta along the way. He occupied Cairo and Alexandria, founding various institutions devoted to the study of ancient Egypt, leading eventually to the Description d'Egypte (18 volumes, 1808-1825). But while there, Napoleon's fleet was attacked by Horatio Nelson. He returned to France in 1799.
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In 1791, after the French revolution had begun, Napoleon became a part of the Corsican National Guard. By the time Corsica gained independence in 1793, Napoleon, having become a French patriot, moved all of the Bonaparte family to France. At the age of 24 Napoleon succeeded at driving the British Fleet from the harbor of Toulon. He was made a brigadier general and successfully protected the revolutionary government from a mob of Parisians. While in Paris he met Josephine de Beauharnais, the widow of a guillotined aristocrat. They fell in love and were married in 1796.
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The best one-volume work on Napoleon in English is James M. Thompson's slightly pro-British account, Napoleon Bonaparte (1952). Also excellent are Felix Markham, Napoleon (1964), and André Castelot, Napoleon (1971). The two-volume work of Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon (1936; trans. 1969), is a masterful account of the period 1799-1815; primarily a political history, it includes all aspects of the Napoleonic era.
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Attempting to reconstruct the empire, Napoleon liberalized the constitution, but his efforts were cut short when warfare began again. Napoleon was utterly crushed in the Waterloo campaign (June 12-18). He again abdicated and surrendered himself to a British warship, hoping to find asylum in England. Instead he was shipped as a prisoner of war to the lonely island of Saint Helena , where he spent his remaining years quarreling with the British governor, Sir Hudson Lowe , talking with his ever-dwindling group of followers, and dictating his memoirs., He died May 5, 1821, officially from stomach cancer, but the presence of arsenic in samples of his hair have led some modern researchers to suggest he was poisoned. Napoleon's remains were ordered to be returned to France by Louis Philippe in 1840 and were entombed under the dome of the Invalides in Paris.
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