LYCOS RETRIEVER 
Circumcision: Studies
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Circumcision was essential to the true worship of Yahweh throughout the Old Testament. Does the New Covenant abolish it? Is it still an essential part of true worship? Have certain aspects of circumcision been changed as part of the New Covenant? This study will hopefully help to answer these and other questions concerning this rite.
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Concerning the sexual impact, Maimonides wrote, "Circumcision weakens the power of sexual excitement."26 Contemporary research supports the view that circumcision diminishes sexual pleasure. In order to appreciate the sexual impact of circumcision on adults, it is helpful to know that the adult foreskin has an area of about twelve square inches,27 and it has several functions. In the relaxed or flaccid state it protects the glans (head of the penis) from abrasion and contact with clothes. Without the foreskin, the glans "skin," which is normally mucous membrane, becomes dry and thickens considerably in response to continued exposure, and consequently its sensitivity is reduced.28 The foreskin itself is a very sensitive part of the penis and improves the experience of sexual intercourse.29 According to a study published in the British Journal of Urology, it has "specialized nerve endings"30 and represents about a third of the penile skin.31 The foreskin increases sexual pleasure by sliding up and down on the shaft, stimulating the glans by alternately covering and exposing it. This can occur during masturbation or intercourse. Friction is minimized, and supplementary lubrication is not needed.32
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DPNB is very effective in reducing the behavioral and physiologic indicators of pain caused by circumcision. Compared with control subjects who received no analgesia, neonates with DPNB cry 45% to 76% less,3949-51 have 34% to 50% smaller increases in heart rate,50,52 and have smaller decreases in oxygen saturation during the procedure.39,52 Additionally, DPNB lidocaine attenuates the adrenocortical stress response compared with control subjects who received no injections or injections of saline.49 The technique of Kirya and Werthmann is used most commonly to perform the block.53 A 27-gauge needle is used to inject the 0.4mL of 1% lidocaine, to be administered at both the 10-and 2-o'clock positions at the base of the penis. The needle is directed posteromedially 3to 5mm on each side until Buck's fascia is entered. After aspiration, the local anesthetic is injected. Systemic lidocaine levels obtained with use of this technique demonstrated peak concentrations at 60minutes, well below toxic ranges.52 Several studies evaluating the efficacy of DPNB reported bruising as the most frequent complication.49,50,54,55 Hematomas were rarely seen and caused no long-term injury.50,56 A single report of penile necrosis may have been secondary to the surgical technique rather than to the DPNB.57
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If circumcision does protect against HIV transmission, the mechanism by which it does so is unclear. Langerhans cells, a part of the human immune system, can be infected by the HIV virus.[44]. Szabo and Short (2000) [45] suggested that Langerhans cells in the foreskin may provide an entry point for viral infection. Three studies, Patterson et al. (2002) [46], Donoval et al. (2006) [47] and Hussain et al. (1995) [48] identified high concentrations of Langerhans and other HIV target cells in the human prepuce. Additionally, McCoombe and Short (2002) found that the keratin is thinnest on the foreskin and frenulum.[49] Conversely, some authors believe that the prepuce has an important immunological function, and that its removal increases the chances of infections<ref name=Fleiss>Template:Cite web</ref>. This hypothesis has been criticised on technical grounds.[50] [51]
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Pain: Babies are very sensitive to pain and often suffer tremendously after the circumcision is performed. Some studies suggest that this early pain experience leads to a change in your baby’s central nervous system. As a result, your baby may actually experience heightened pain sensation in the future.
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There are fears that some may mistakenly believe they will be protected against HIV through circumcision and see circumcision as a safe alternative to other forms of protection, such as condoms. The World Health Organization stresses that the protective effect offered by male circumcision in Africa has to be confirmed by further studies, and is not reliable enough to replace sex education and safer sex practice as a means to combat AIDS.
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