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Caesar
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The best modern biography of Caesar is Matthias Gelzer, Caesar: Politician and Statesman (1921; trans. 1968). Michael Grant, Julius Caesar (1969), is a detailed survey of Caesar's career. Other biographies include John Buchan, Julius Caesar (1932), and Alfred L. Duggan, Julius Caesar: A Great Life in Brief (1955; new ed. 1966). For an understanding of how Caesar operated in the politics of his time see Lily Ross Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (1949). Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939; rev. ed. 1952), places Caesar in the political developments of the 1st century B.C. F. E. Adcock discusses Caesar's literary achievements in Caesar as Man of Letters (1956).
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[T]here is another reason that Caesar is not a favorite author. Generation after generation, Latin spawned a tough breed of teachers who believed that discipline is the end of education. What better place to enforce discipline than in an elaborate system like Latin grammar? "They may not learn much Latin, but they are sure going to learn how to work." The more interesting social studies appeared in the l920's, the engaging Humanities penetrated the schools in the l950's, but the Latin teachers held their thin line stout-heartedly. Society always managed to applaud them enough to keep Latin in the curriculum, saying that the rigors of Latin were good for the mind.
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Caesar had long ago resolved upon the overthrow of Pompey, as had Pompey, for that matter, upon his. For Crassus, the fear of whom had hitherto kept them in peace, having now been killed in Parthia, if the one of them wished to make himself the greatest man in Rome, he had only to overthrow the other; and if he again wished to prevent his own fall, he had nothing for it but to be beforehand with him whom he feared. Pompey had not been long under any such apprehensions, having till lately despised Caesar, as thinking it no difficult matter to put down him whom he himself had advanced. But Caesar had entertained this design from the beginning against his rivals, and had retired, like an expert wrestler, to prepare himself apart for the combat. Making the Gallic wars his exercise-ground, he had at once improved the strength of his soldiery, and had heightened his own glory by his great actions, so that he was looked on as one who might challenge comparison with Pompey. Nor did he let go any of those advantages which were now given him both by Pompey himself and the times, and the ill-government of Rome, where all who were candidates for offices publicly gave money, and without any shame bribed the people, who, having received their pay, did not contend for their benefactors with their bare suffrages, but with bows, swords, and slings.
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Caesar still had numerous unconquered enemies in Africa and Spain. Turning first to Africa, on April 6, 46 B.C., at Thapsus he crushed a republican army led by Cato the Younger, his old and bitter enemy. Cato retreated to Utica, where he committed suicide rather than surrender to Caesar. Caesar moved into Spain and on March 17, 45 B.C., defeated the sons of Pompey at Munda.
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Before and after the triumphs, Caesar began to work on the social ills that had plagued Rome since the time of the Gracchi, nearly a century before. He first declared a general pardon for any citizens who had taken up arms against him in the civil war. Though in reality it did little, because there would only be trouble if Caesar pursued his opponents as his predecessors, like Sulla and Marius did; it did alleviate many fears about Caesar's intentions. He performed a census of the city, and was able to reduce the free grain dole of its citizens from 300,000 to 150,000 based on his findings. In order to alleviate any problems this might have caused, Caesar forced large farm owners to hire at least 1/3 of their labor from free citizens rather than slaves, ensuring work for the landless poor. Additionally, new colonies were founded all over the provinces, eventually sending out nearly 80,000 of these same poor to more productive destinations.
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Julius Caesar had many men conspiring against him, among these 60 men were 16 senators, including Cassius, Casca, Cimber and Brutus. Thei'r motives were obvious -- personal gain; they masked it as a nobly patriotic cause. On the 15th of Martiae, 710 AUC, the Senate held a meeting in the hall adjoining the theater Pompey had built 11 years previously. A man named Cimber knelt at Caesar's feet to plead for his brother's recall from banishment. When Caesar irritably refused him, Cimber yanked Julius' toga down from his neck and the other conspirators began to stab Caesar. When they were finished, Caesar lay dead with 23 wounds.
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