LYCOS RETRIEVER 
African Americans: Civil War
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Although African Americans improved their lot by taking jobs in urban industries, they nonetheless entered the industrial economy at the lowest rungs of the occupational ladder. Moreover, as their numbers increased in northern and western cities, they faced growing residential and educational restrictions and limitations on access to social services and public accommodations. Responding to the impact of such class and racial restrictions, African Americans intensified their institution-building and their cultural, political, economic, and civil-rights activities. They founded mutual aid societies, fraternal orders, and social clubs; established a range of new business and professional services; and launched diverse political, labor, and civil rights organizations, including the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), founded in 1909.
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Earlier in the post-Civil War Reconstruction era, African Americans made significant legislative gains—or so it seemed. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution were intended to provide full citizenship— with all its rights and privileges—to all blacks. The Fifteenth Amendment, ratified in 1870, granted black American men the right to vote.
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The Civil Rights Movement produced several pieces of legislation, which reaffirmed the rights of African Americans. The most effective were the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The Civil Rights Act prohibited discrimination in public places, and discrimination by employers of labor unions on the basis of color, race, religion, national origin, and sex. The Voting Rights Act re-enfranchised blacks by outlawing obstructionist educational requirements for voting and by empowering the attorney general to have the Civil Rights Commission assign federal registrars to uphold the voting rights of African Americans.
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Frank Jenkins (1902-1973) was a second generation Seattle longshoreman and one of the first African Americans to hold leadership positions in the International Longshore and Warehouse Union. A participant in the 1934 strike that created the ILWU, for the next thirty-three years he served Seattle's Local 19 in various leadership capacities and was regularly elected to the Coast Labor Relations committee of the International union. This biography tells the story of a pioneer black union leader who helped promote civil rights activism in his union and in his community.
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Increasing drug use among rural African American women and its effect on children warrants investigation. This article describes drug-use locations of rural African American women who use cocaine and construct their lives to conceal it from children. During 4 years, a 30-respondent ethnography was conducted. Data from in-depth interviews and field notes were analyzed for recurrent themes and patterns of drug-use location using NVivo. Most respondents with children used most often outside their households. One third (n = 10) used within their households when children were away or in designated spaces off limits to children.
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World War II and the industries that arose to support it ... improved the prospect of good jobs and a freer life for African Americans, particularly in the West. As a result, a huge migration ensued that increased black populations in those urban areas. In the western region, some black populations grew tenfold. This migration gave rise to the nation's Civil Rights Movement during the 1950s and 1960s, and ignited the careers of local black leaders such as Dr. Lincoln J. Ragsdale Sr. in Phoenix, Arizona, and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X at the national level. The black American freedom struggle quickly became a more inclusive beacon in the global fight for human rights, the defeat of European colonialism, and the destruction of racism. It ushered in profound and positive changes.
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