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Abbasid Caliphate: Egypt
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From the time of the Buyid occupation of Baghdad until its destruction by the Mongols in 1258, the Abbasid caliphate remained a purely formal institution. After the dissolution of the Buyids in the mid-eleventh century, their place was filled by the Turkish Seljuqs, who took the title of Sultan. Their rule reunified the Muslim state from Syria to Tranoxiana and stamped out the last Shi`ite revolutionary movements in the area of their control; these actions helped to enhance the prestige of the caliphate against their Fatimid rivals in Egypt. With the breakup of the Seljuq sultanate in the twelfth century, a power vacuum was left in Iraq enabled the caliph al-Nasir (1180-1225) to make an attempt to restore Abbasid power. However, his successors were incompetent, and the last caliph in Iraq, al-Mu`tasim, was unable to offer any resistence to the Mongols when they arrived in Baghdad in 1258.
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The Abbasid caliphate based in Baghdad, at the height of artistic and scientific achievements in the 8th-9th centuries, lost control of its destiny in the 10th, when the rival Fatimid caliphate established itself in Cairo (969). Palestine and Syria were now caught between two dynasties -- the Shi'ites (Fatimids) of Egypt and Sunnis (Abbasids) of Iraq/Iran. Then in the 11th century, the Abbasids became virtual puppets when the Seljuks of Turkey (converts to Sunnism) conquered Iraq/Iran, and were "welcomed" by the Abbasid caliph (1055). From this point on, the Abbasids would be dominated by foreigners (Turks and Kurds), unable to nurture the achievements of their earliest years.
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The Mamluks had already established themselves in Egypt and were able to establish their own empire because the Mongols destroyed the Abbasid caliphate. In 1258 the Mongol invaders put to death the last Abbasid caliph in Baghdad. The following year, a Mongol army of as many as 120,000 men commanded by Hulagu Khan crossed the Euphrates and entered Syria. Meanwhile, in Egypt the last Ayyubid sultan had died in 1250, and political control of the state had passed to the Mamluk guards whose generals seized the sultanate. In 1258, soon after the news of the Mongol entry into Syria had reached Egypt, the Turkish Mamluk Qutuz declared himself sultan and organized the successful military resistance to the Mongol advance. The decisive battle was fought in 1260 at Ayn Jalut in Palestine, where Qutuz's forces defeated the Mongol army.
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After the first four caliphs the Caliphate was claimed by the dynasties such as Umayyads, the Abbasids, and the Ottomans, and for relatively short periods by other, competing dynasties in al-Andalus, Northern Africa, and Egypt. Mustafa Kemal officially abolished the last Caliphate, the Ottoman Empire, and founded the Republic of Turkey, in 1924. The Kings of Morocco still label themselves with the title Amīr al-Mu'minīn for Moroccans, but lay no claim to the Caliphate.
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In just two years Saladin suppressed the rulers for which he had little regard and ... united Egypt with the Abbasid Caliphate. When Nur ed-Din died in 1174, Saladin began his expansion of territories. In just twelve years he had Damascus, Syria, Alleppo, Mawsil and Iraq. After a three-month battle he captured Jerusalem in 1187 at the Battle of Hattin.
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In 892 the caliph al-Mu'tadid returned the capital to Baghdad, starting a minor Abbasid revival. His enemies to the east, the Saffarids, were overthrown by the orthodox and spiritually obedient Samanids (900); in Egypt the Abbasids ousted the Tulunids and regained direct rule (905). However, the revival lasted for just a generation; thirty years later Egypt was lost to another disloyal governor, this time permanently. Syria declared independence under a local Arab family, the Hamdanids, in 936; they would bear the brunt of Byzantium's attacks on Islam in subsequent years. In the Caucasus, the old centrifugal tendencies continued under the Sajid Emir of Azerbaijan, who behaved as if Abbasid authority over his realm did not exist. The activities of the Sajid Emir were mostly directed toward depriving the Armenians of what little wealth and happiness they had; he succeeded when he created a second Armenian kingdom named Vaspurakan in 908.
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